Nanostructured powders, with particle size in the 1 - 10 nm range, have shown great promise in the forming of advanced structural and functional materials for applications as tribological coatings, high surface area catalyst supports for cutting tools, thermal barrier coatings, capacitor and battery… More

We are developing an inexpensive and versatile 'vapor phase deposition' process for deposition of high quality dense oxide films on supporting substrates. For example, fully dense Si02 films on quartz substrates have been deposited at rates as high as 10 microns/min at

49 A New Semi-Solid Forming Process For Fabrication of High Volume Fraction (>15 vol%) Metal/metal Carbide Nanocomposites--Nanopowder Enterprises, Inc., 120 Centennial Avenue, Piscataway, NJ 08854-3900; (908) 885-5909 Dr. Ganesh Skandan, Principal Investigator Dr. Gary S. Tompa, Business… More

Not Available One of the most important elements contributing to the effectiveness and efficiency of Navy and Marine corps sea-based aviation support systems is the movement of aircraft components, munitions, and other aviation support materiel on the flight deck, hangar deck, and throughout the… More

Rechargeable (or secondary) Li-ion batteries are projected to become a $ 2 billion/year industry within the next three years. The major constituent of the cathode in state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries is lithium cobalt oxide power, which amounts to anestimated $ 300 million/year in terms of power… More

The objective of the proposed program is to develop high capacity nanostructured LixMnO2 cathode materials with a layered structure, which is stable over a wide range of lithiation. Layered LixMnO2 is a very attractive cathode material for aerospace applications because of its high theoretical… More

Nanoparticle-dispersed engine coolants would have excellent heat transfer properties due in part to the much higher thermal conductivity of solids relative to liquids. Micron size particles cannot be used for this application because of problems associated with reduced solid-liquid interfacial… More

65396 Microcrystalline LiCoO2 is the most commonly used cathode material in present day rechargeable Li-ion batteries. Although LiCoO2 is both expensive and toxic, other materials in microcrystalline form do not match its performance. An opportunity exists for new cathode materials that are… More

This Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase I project will lead to an economical wet chemical method for depositing hard and scratch resistant coatings on transparent polymer substrates. The proposed program, when successfully carried out, will solve the ubiquitous problem of transparent… More

"In Phase I we demonstrated that Microwave Sintering of Nanostructured Powders is a commercially viable near net shape process for producing fine grained sintered materials. The proposed Phase II program will advance the technology to a state of commercialreadiness. Several areas of application,… More

The objective of the proposed program is to develop high capacity nanostructured LixMnO2 cathode materials with a layered structure, which is stable over a wide range of lithiation. Layered LixMnO2 is a very attractive cathode material for aerospace applications because of its high theoretical… More

65192 Liquids that contain dispersed nanoparticles have much higher thermal conductivity. The enhanced thermal properties reflect a unique nanoparticle-effect that is not observed with micron size particles because of the enormous difference in the solid-liquid interfacial area. In… More

The objective of the proposed program is to develop high capacity nanostructured LixMnO2 cathode materials with a layered structure, which is stable over a wide range of lithiation. Layered LixMnO2 is a very attractive cathode material for aerospace applications because of its high theoretical… More

"Sapphire has been the dominant infrared transparent material for quite some time, and polycrystalline materials such as, magnesium fluoride, aluminum oxynitride and yttrium oxide, have been used to a limited extent when the performance criteria have beenless stringent. Polycrystalline and… More

"Building upon Fraunhofer Center's recently developed process of producing reactive nanoparticles (e.g., metals, carbides and nitrides) at high rates in a pristine environment, and Nanopowder Enterprises Inc.'s technology of dispersing nanoparticlesuniformly as a second phase in a polymer matrix, we… More

70640 Advanced electrochemical devices with high power density and fast charge rate capability (less than 10 minutes) are needed for hybrid electric vehicles. Existing electrode materials and battery configurations are not capable of providing the necessary performance at low cost. This… More

"We propose to develop a new high rate process for sorting nanoparticles in the gas phase. The process also overcomes the fundamental limitation of the existing differential mobility analyzer, thereby allowing an output that is conducive to industrial use.The nanoparticle separator can be used… More

Sapphire (single crystal aluminum oxide) is the most commonly used material in infrared transparent windows and domes in `heat seeking' missiles. A replacement for sapphire is sought for improved performance in high speed missile applications, and at thesame time, reduce the cost of the windows and… More

70640S02-II Advanced electrochemical devices with high power density and fast charge rate capability (less than 10 minutes) are needed for hybrid electric vehicles. Existing electrode materials and battery configurations are not capable of providing the necessary performance at low cost. This… More

70640S02-II Advanced electrochemical devices with high power density and fast charge rate capability (less than 10 minutes) are needed for hybrid electric vehicles. Existing electrode materials and battery configurations are not capable of providing the necessary performance at low cost. This… More

The energy density of Li-ion batteries can be enhanced by utilizing cathodes that have significantly higher energy density than that of state-of-the-art LiCoO2. The proposed program focuses on developing novel nanocomposites with a theoretical energy density of 800 Wh/kg, which is more than 60%… More

Sapphire has been the dominant infrared transparent material for quite some time, and polycrystalline materials such as, magnesium fluoride, aluminum oxynitride and yttrium oxide, have been used to a limited extent when the performance criteria have beenless stringent. Polycrystalline and… More

72639S03-I Due to the potential for low cost and high performance, polymer nanocomposite coatings could replace conventional, high cost polymer coatings for applications where outstanding abrasion resistance and long maintenance cycles (approximately 20 years) are desired. This project will… More

For quite some time, a suitable replacement for the environmentally harmful depleted uranium (DU) for use as long rod penetrators has remained elusive. Tungsten based heavy alloys, commonly termed WHAs, with a tungsten grain size in the several tens ofmicrons, come close to the performance of DU for… More

In Phase I, we demonstrated that high purity nanoparticles of spinel MgAl2O4 can be synthesized using a novel chemical synthesis process that was recently invented by us. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that nanopowders of MgAl2O4 haveever been synthesized. Sinterable spinel… More

We propose to use a novel synthesis process to produce ultrafine (0.1 - 0.4 microns) and highly sinterable powders of MgAl2O4 spinel. The synthesis process, which utilizes nanoparticles as starting material, overcomes the limitations posed by conventionalpowder synthesis processes on the chemical… More

This Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase I project will develop a transparent conducting oxide (TCO) coating suitable for polymer substrates which are attractive alternatives to TCO coated glass, because of their low cost, reduced weight and enhanced toughness. Conventional techniques… More

Building upon our newly developed chemical synthesis process, which is now being used to produce oxide nanopowders with exceptional particle characteristics, we propose to develop an economical and environmentally acceptable process for producing highquality sinterable nanopowders of fluoride… More

There is an immediate need for low cost, reliable and safe rechargeable batteries with high energy density (i.e. superior to state of the art Li-ion batteries) for use in a variety of military, aerospace and commercial applications. Rechargeable Mg2+batteries offer the potential to fulfill these… More

The energy density of Li-ion batteries can be enhanced by utilizing cathodes that have significantly higher energy density than that of state-of-the-art LiCoO2. The proposed program focuses on developing novel nanocomposites with a theoretical energydensity of ~ 800 Wh/kg, which is more than 60%… More

There is no technology currently available for sorting nanoparticles by particle size. Furthermore, there is no commercially viable process for removing relatively large primary particles and aggregates from a nanopowder mass. High rate nanoparticle production processes invariably produce powders… More

The energy density and the average operating voltage of Li-ion batteries can be enhanced by utilizing new cathode chemistries that have significantly higher capacity and higher open circuit voltage than those of start-of-the-art LiCoO2 cathode. The proposed program focuses on developing novel… More

Phase I work demonstrated that ultrafine grained tungsten-based materials, which are an alternative to depleted uranium (DU) used in kinetic energy (KE) penetrators, can be synthesized by consolidating nanostructured powders. This was made possible due to innovations in synthesis and processing of… More

High power (> 500 W/kg) and fast charge rate (> 5C) Li-ion batteries that possess good energy density and can operate over a wide temperature range are needed in a variety of commercial, military and space applications, such as hybrid electric vehicles, power tools, satellites and launch vehicles. … More

76216-As part of the trend of polymers replacing metals, shape memory polymers (SMPs) are emerging as alternatives to the traditionally used shape memory metals. However, two problems exist: (1) unreinforced SMPs are plagued by low strength and low stiffness; and (2) heat is the only actuation… More

This Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase I project will develop high performance polycarbonate nanocomposites. Polycarbonate possess poor abrasion and chemical resistance and shows crazing and cracking upon stress. Incorporation of clay particles in a polymer matrix can overcome… More

There is a need for high energy ( 200 Wh/kg) and high power (> 500 W/kg) density rechargeable Li-ion batteries that are safe and reliable for several space and consumer applications. State-of-the-art rechargeable Li-ion batteries are incapable of fulfilling these stringent requirements. We propose… More

72639-The properties of waterborne organic coatings for several demanding applications are inadequate. By incorporating nanoparticles in the matrix, the properties and performance of organic coatings can be significantly improved in ways that had not been possible until now with coarser micron and… More

72639-The properties of waterborne organic coatings for several demanding applications are inadequate. By incorporating nanoparticles in the matrix, the properties and performance of organic coatings can be significantly improved in ways that had not been possible until now with coarser micron and… More

High energy density Li-ion batteries that can operate over a wide temperature range are needed in a variety of military, space and commercial applications. The specific energy of Li-ion batteries can be enhanced by utilizing new cathode materials that have significantly higher energy density than… More

The energy density and rate capabilities of Li-ion batteries can be enhanced by ultizing nanostructured electode materials with "newly developed" chemsitries. The proposed program focuses on developing high power and fast charge rate Li-ion batteries based on nanostructured electrodes (cathode and… More

78876S A heat transfer fluid with substantially higher heat transfer capabilties than state-of-the-art fluids would be of interest for closed-loop industrial waste heat recovery, as well as for general purpose industrial heat transfer. To date, the benefits from nanomaterial-enhanced industrial… More

Refractory coated polymers are a superior alternative to uncoated polymers or pure ceramic insulators, as they provide the flexibility of polymers and the superior properties of ceramic as insulators. The proposed program aims to develop a technology which will address the problems associated with… More

Currently, adequate ballistic protection in optically transparent surface shields and transparent armor is provided either by thick sections of polymers, or by laminated sheets of polymer and glass. In both cases, the areal density is very high. For reasons explained in the proposal, efforts to date… More

As part of the trend over the years of polymers replacing metals, substituting metallic wing skins with shape memory polymers (SMPs) that have excellent mechanical properties provides an opportunity to develop a new kind of morphing aircraft that can fulfil the needs of future military missions.… More

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) require economical, safe, rechargable Li-ion batteries that have high power, long cycle life, and good low-temperature performance. The DOE performance targets for HEV rechargeable batteries include a discharge power of 25kW for 18 seconds, a cost of $20/kW, and an… More

Part of the recent improvement in automotive fuel economy has been a direct result of the use of lightweight alloys. However, the use of alloys of the lightest metal, magnesium (Mg), has been limited due to the monetary and environmental expense of corrosion protection. A less expensive and more… More

High performance silicone coatings are desired for flexible fabrics used in several space and consumer applications. For instance, the total weight of silicone coatings that are used on Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) airbags can be reduced by improving their thermal stability and mechanical… More

We propose to develop nanoparticle-based taggants that are stable and non-toxic, and are capable of producing UV, visible and IR signatures. Combining nanoparticles with different compositions will provide the ability to produce a multitude of unique markers, each specific to a certain combination… More

To successfully achieve and maintain Air Theater Superiority over the modern battlefield the Air Force requires high performance polymer/fiber composite materials. These lightweight high strength materials have greatly advanced the capabilities of jet aircrafts, munitions, space vehicles, as well… More

Despite progress in the development of SiC/SiC ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), their application in industrial turbines and microturbines for distributed energy (DE) systems has been limited. The poor oxidation resistance of non-oxide ceramics requires the use of envrionmental barrier coatings… More

Generation IV power generating nuclear reactors, which will operate at temperatures greater than 900 C, need new multi-functional refractory materials that presently are not available. Some of the functional performance criteria for the materials include low thermal coefficient of expansion, high… More

Extending the duration of drilling operations without interruption is important to increasing the productivity and lowering the cost of geothermal drilling. However, the polymer and metal seals in current use are unable to sustain temperatures greater than 200 C and pressures of several thousands… More

Current corrosion protection for the US Navy is often provided by Chromium based compounds which are considered hazardous and potential carcinogens. Exposure can occur during coating operations, and release is highly probable in sea water applications. A suitable alternative is therefore needed,… More

Current surface preparation methods and repair of Navy ships involve the use of abrasive blasting prior to application of primers and top coats. Apart from being expensive and time consuming, toxic waste in the form of abrasive blast media and paint chips containing heavy metals are generated. These… More

Boron Nanotubes (BNTs) have been predicted to have characteristics that are distinctively different than those of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), particularly with respect to physical and chemical properties. However, the development of BNTs is still in its infancy due to the lack of research performed in… More

The cost involved in reducing mercury emissions from coal fired power plants is an impediment to the implementation of new mercury emission standards, particularly in the older power plants. A number of different sorbent technologies have been considered in the recent past, the most prominent of… More

High-energy-density capacitors are needed in a number of applications for high energy physics research, including solid state pulsed power systems. A capacitor¿s energy storage density can be increased by either increasing the dielectric constant or the electric field. Since the electric field is… More

We propose to develop high figure of merit (ZT) oxide-based thermoelectric materials. This will be accomplished by engineering a novel microstructure that will lead to reduced lattice thermal conductivity, a large Seebeck coefficient and high electronic conductivity. A new processing route to… More

High performance epoxy-fiber based composite materials are needed to maintain Air Theater Superiority over the modern battlefield. Lightweight high strength materials have greatly advanced the capabilities of jet aircraft, munitions, space vehicles, as well as ground support vehicles. However, it is… More

Silicone coatings are the system of choice for inflatable fabrics used in several space, military, and consumer applications, including airbags, parachutes, rafts, boat sails, and inflatable shelters. Commercial silicone coatings with improved mechanical, thermal and physical gas barrier properties… More

Conventional and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) require economical and safe rechargeable Li-ion batteries that have high power, good cyclability, long calendar life, and good low temperature performance. Plug-in HEV batteries also need to have high energy density. Currently available… More

The Phase I program combined the technologies at Cornell and NEI, and demonstrated the feasibility of novel composite nanoparticle-based taggants for purposes of covert identification. The nanoparticles are an alternative to dyes, inks and other materials used as invisible markers. Key features of… More

Safe, non-toxic, high voltage and high energy density Li-ion batteries, along with good power density are needed in a variety of military, space and commercial applications. The specific power and energy density of Li-ion batteries can be enhanced by utilizing cathode materials that have higher… More

Thin films, elastomeric materials, high temperature fabrics and adhesives that are capable of withstanding thermal extremes (-130oC to 500oC) are highly desirable for use in inflatable decelerator applications. One solution is to substantially increase the thermal conductivity of the adhesive layer… More

The cost of coating and maintaining Navy ships is substantially high and can be reduced by eliminating the expensive grit blasting step and reducing the thickness of epoxy primer for maintaining the same operational life of corrosion-resistant coating system. Grit blasting of Navy ships, a routine… More

This Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase I aims to enable the widespread use of magnesium alloys in automobiles by developing a self-healing, chromate-free conversion coating for magnesium alloy components. The weight reduction associated with the use of magnesium will make automobiles… More

Boron-based nanotubes, i.e., both boron nitride and boron nanotubes, have been predicted to have characteristics that are distinctively different from those of carbon nanotubes, particularly with respect to physical and chemical properties. However, very little experimental work has been done to… More

The cost of reducing mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants is an impediment to the implementation of new mercury emission standards, particularly in older power plants. The use of a sorbent to capture mercury from the flue gas is considered to be the most effective approach, but issues… More

Low-cost, safe, large voltage (i.e., hundreds of volts), and high-energy lithium-ion batteries with long calendar and operational lives are required for a variety of electric utility applications to address issues associated with power quality and transmission congestion. Such large-format batteries… More

Steam-to-liquid heat exchangers are used extensively in industrial applications, including chemical and food processing and electric power generation. In present systems, the formation of a condensate film of water on the surface of a heat exchanger tube reduces the heat transfer coefficient. This… More

Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESPs) for use in geothermal energy production are subjected to harsh downhole environments. These environments include hot brine (which contains calcium and chloride ions, corrosive hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide, and silica and entrained sand) at temperatures in… More

In coal-fired power plants, the waste streams from flue gas desulfurization (FGD) have high levels of mercury, arsenic, and selenium; therefore, these streams need to be treated prior to discharge. Moreover, the use of non-traditional waters for FGD, combined with more stringent regulations on… More

Small refineries are in constant need of technologies to enhance their energy efficiency and reduce operating costs. These refineries make extensive use of water-based cooling towers downstream from the cracking/refining/reactor processes, in order to reduce temperatures prior to finished product… More

The fuel efficiency of automobiles can be enhanced by using lightweight materials such as magnesium alloys. However, unlike steel, magnesium alloys corrode rapidly. Although magnesium alloys can be protected against corrosion by chromate-based coatings, chromates are being phased out due to toxicity… More

Mercury remediation in contaminated sites throughout the United States is currently being addressed by a variety of techniques, including the use of sorbents. Although a variety of sorbent materials for capturing mercury in contaminated water are available commercially, there is an opportunity to… More

Specialty polymer coatings are widely used for maintenance applications, such as for bridges, refineries, power plants, ships, industrial floors, and fuel tanks. Due to routine wear and tear, micro-damage or micro-cracks within the resin matrix can be generated, which eventually lead to macroscopic… More

The proposed program aims to overcome the challenge of developing a Li-ion battery that delivers high performance while simultaneously improving the intrinsic safety of the Li-ion cell. Generally, safety at the cell level is sacrificed in order to achieve performance in terms of high… More

Aero-assist technologies are used to control the velocity of exploration vehicles (EV) when entering earth or other planetary atmospheres. Since entry of EVs in planetary atmospheres results in significant heating, thermally stable aero-assist technologies are required to avoid the high heating… More

Nanomaterials and nanocomposites offer great potential for improvement in many applications. One such NASA application is the prevention of microcracking as well as improvement in impact strength at cryogenic temperatures of composite cryotanks/carbon fiber-reinforced filament wound composite… More

The formation of a condensate film on the surface of a heat exchanger tube reduces the heat transfer coefficient of vapor-to-liquid heat exchangers. This reduction occurs because the thermal conductivity of the condensate liquid is only a fraction of that of the metallic heat exchanging tube… More

The use of a solid polymer electrolyte instead of the conventional liquid or gel electrolyte can drastically improve the safety aspects of Li-ion batteries. However, existing solid electrolytes based on poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) do not meet the functional performance requirements. At low… More

The performance of state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries does not meet the requirements of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) with respect to energy density and cycle life. While the energy density can be increased by using high voltage (i.e., > 4.8 V) cathode materials, organic liquid… More

Refractory metals such as tungsten are being considered for use as plasma facing components (PFCs) in fusion power reactors. Due to the enormous heat generated in the system, the refractory metal needs to be bonded to a heat sink, such as a copper alloy. Conventional materials processing leads to… More

Most polymeric coatings are susceptible to impairments induced by environmental degradation and mechanical damage, which eventually lead to loss of function or even macroscopic failure of the coating. With conventional coating technologies, repair of a coating is tedious and expensive. The use of… More

The use of lightweight metals such as magnesium can increase the fuel efficiency of automobiles. However, large scale use of magnesium is prevented due to its high propensity to corrode. In particular, galvanic corrosion is a severe problem when magnesium is used in the exterior sub-assemblies of… More

Historically, releases of mercury have resulted in contamination of soil, groundwater, surface water, sediments, and biota, posing difficult assessment and cleanup challenges at a number of DOE sites. Although a variety of sorbent materials for capturing mercury in contaminated water are available… More

The Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESPs) used in geothermal energy production are subjected to harsh downhole environments that include hot brine (e.g. calcium chloride), corrosive hydrogen sulfide/carbon dioxide, silica, and entrained sand, all at temperatures in the range of 300 to 450 °F. The… More

The advantages of vanadium redox flow batteries include long cycle life, high efficiency, and large capacity, which make them attractive for utility-scale applications. Despite these advantages, the industry has been slow to adopt vanadium redox batteries for commercial use, mostly because of cost… More

Currently used cathode materials in energy storage devices do not fully satisfy the power density and energy density requirements for NASA's exploration missions. Working in collaboration with our STTR partner at University of California

NEI Corporation proposes to develop a mixed metal oxide nanocomposite cathode that is designed for delivering high energy density with good rate performance at low temperatures (T=0 C). The two-fold innovation in the proposed effort is the simultaneous intrinsic (i.e. defect chemistry) and extrinsic… More

More efficient heat removal from ground-based and airborne Army vehicles can (i) enhance the performance of these systems, particularly in hot climates; (ii) reduce the heat signature, and (iii) help reduce the weight of thermal control systems such as radiators. Building upon NEIf?Ts nanoscale… More

Problem Statement:  Most of the Nation’s water infrastructure is aging rapidly. Reports indicate that in the major water systems, approximately 30 percent of the pipes are 40 to 80 years old, and approximately 10 percent are more than 80 years old. The water pipes are subject to internal… More

This Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase I project will advance the state-of-the-art in dewatering of industrial and municipal sludges in general and oily sludges in particular. The project will evaluate the use of nanoparticle materials to reduce polymer use and odor potential,… More

The state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries do not fully meet the energy density, power density and safety requirements specified by NASA for future exploration missions. Building upon our Phase I feasibility study, we propose to implement an advanced cathode material in practical Li-ion batteries. The… More

There is an unmet need in the US Army for wide-span bridges that can be deployed in the field. This requires lightweight materials and tool-kit designs for easy and quick installation. The materials must possess enhanced load-bearing capacity, improved weather resistance, and longer service lives… More

The use of high performance lubricating grease and transmission oil in the Armys ground and airborne vehicles can (i) enhance the performance and life of these systems, particularly in hot climates, (ii) reduce the heat signature, and (iii) help reduce the weight of thermal control systems, thereby… More

As part of the spacesuit pressure garment, the EVA glove incorporates a silicone pad on the palm for protection of the bladder from cuts and punctures. Repeated gripping and rotational motion cause delamination of the silicone pad from the underlying Vectran® fabric. In addition, frequent scuffing… More

Composite cryotanks, or Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPVs), offer advantages over currently used aluminum-lithium cryotanks, particularly with respect to weight savings. Future NASA missions are expected to use COPVs in spaceflight propellant tanks to store fuels, oxidizers, and other… More

Carbon Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) are attractive structural materials for NASA applications due to their high strength to weight ratio, mechanical properties that can be tailored to specific applications, and fatigue resistance. Reinforcing specific critical areas in PMCs is most advantageous… More

Problem Statement: In order to obtain energy independence from conventional sources, there is a significant interest in the production of biogas and “green energy” during wastewater treatment. Due to increased emphasis on sustainability and potential for additional revenue streams, utilities… More

ABSTRACT: Fiber reinforced composites (FRCs) are attractive structural materials for Air Force applications due to their high strength to weight ratios. Multi-functional self-healing FRCs will advance the state of the art in Air Force applications that either currently use FRCs, or will use FRCs in… More

There is an unmet need in the US Navy for improved EMI shielding materials that can reduce signal interference between electronic equipment. Metals are a primary component in currently used EMI shields. Consequently, the shielding materials are heavy, and not optimally suitable for use in avionic… More

Thermal batteries are considered as low maintenance reserve batteries that can provide power and energy to electronics systems that operate under harsh conditions. Despite these unique capabilities, state-of-the-art thermal batteries have limitations, which include low energy density, limited pulse… More

Building upon NEI's core competency in developing and producing nanotechnology-based functional coatings, we propose to leverage our existing superhydrophobic coating technology to develop a new class of superhydrophobic coating that is both durable and has the ability to self-heal. The… More

Currently used air filters in DOD infrastructures are limited in their ability to adsorb Toxic Industrial Chemicals (TICs) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Further, these filters are designed for single use, and need to be replaced frequently, hence increasing the maintenance cost. The… More